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Translation Studies in India has begun to take institutional shape and it is important at this juncture to collate texts on translation written in Indian languages at different points of time. This would not only facilitate our understanding of translational norms acting in the literary and linguistic system at any given point of time, but also lead to a general notion of attitudes related to translation as process and product in a particular system. This in turn will enable us to build our theories of inter-lingual translation. In this paper I will draw attention to a few such texts in Bangla in what has been called the modern period in literary history.
         Translation in Bangla, as in the case of other Indian languages, has a long history going back to ancient times and whether or not in the early stages they were looked upon as ‘translation’ is a different matter. In fact, as Dinesh Chandra Sen points out in his article “Bangla Bhashay Anubad-Sahitya” (Sen 1907:18:2&3), the very course of Bangla language was deflected towards Sanskrit again in the early stages because of the profusion of Sanskrit words in the translated versions of the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Bhagvat Purana. These texts were very popular and hence had an impact on the common language of the people. Sen further gives the example of Alaol's Padmabati in the mid-17^th century, translated from the Hindi Padumavat of Jaysi, as having the greatest number of Sanskrit words. The translation, accomplished while Alaol was in service in Arakan, was found, Sen states, in the Persian script in Chittagong. Numerous such instances may be there of the curious passage from one language into another of a popular text in India. There was also the case of translations from Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit tales into simple Hindusthani that were again very popular and had a great impact on the language and literature of the people. The translation scene, however, changed quite radically in the middle of the nineteenth century with the encounter between two very different linguistic and literary systems, Bangla and English, within asymmetrical power relations. In 1851, the Vernacular Literature Committee (later renamed Society), a semi-governmental institution was set up by Drinkwater Bethune, with help and co-operation from British and Indian scholars. In Bangla the society was called Bangabhasanubadak Samaj or Society for Bangla Translation. In the preface to the first text Lord Clive (1852) published by the society, the author Harachandra Dutta wrote that “the object of the association is distinctly stated to be, not only to translate but to adapt English authors into Bengali” (quoted in Sukumar Sen, 1975:43). We can recognise the statement as laying out a colonialist project aimed at obliterating elements in the literary system and remoulding with an overarching purpose. The project however, was only partially successful, for in practice, the society produced translations not only of British texts, but also of texts from other literatures through English and from Indian literatures. However, the kind of literature that was translated, moral tales and social allegories, led to the production of similar texts in the original, gradually bringing in dichotomies and changes in the value system. But again, from a different point of view, activities of the society also contributed to significant changes in the use of the Bangla language that, along with other factors, led to the creation of masterpieces in prose in the next few decades. It would be an interesting study to see how these changes were necessarily very different from those brought about in the early stages of translation from Sanskrit into Bangla.

My concern in this paper is with the modern period and the translation of poetry where one does not encounter any overt prescriptive agenda imposed from above as in the case of prose. In an indirect manner, however, through English education chiefly, an entire school of poetry gets adapted and some translated, though it is not until the first decades of the twentieth century that anthologies of translated poems appear. Here again we come across a large range of source language texts and various different attitudes towards what we would call translational norms, and our understanding of translation as activity in Bengal would be incomplete if we read it solely in terms of a colonial paradigm

During the second half of the nineteenth century, and the first few decades of the twentieth century to a certain extent, one comes across a large number of poems that are called adaptations, literally chhaya abalambane (in the shadow of) and quite often the language is mentioned, but not the name of the poet or the poem. A comparison with the source language text of some of the poems would reveal a strong presence of an invariant core, and this, according to Gideon Toury, would allow the poem the legitimacy of a translated text. In others one may find just a distant echo of the original, although this is rare. The phenomenon may also suggest that the concept of translation as an activity that involves the decoding of a message in a particular language/literary system and encoding it in another, taking into account the denotative and the connotative elements of the message in the sphere of poetry, has not yet taken any definite shape. Yet again, the attitude also has at its point of origin an idealistic, universalistic notion of poetry that shapes horizons of poetic activities in the literary system and this despite experiences of colonialism over a long period of time. It is universalism with a difference as articulated by Rabindranath in his speech 'Visvasahitya' or World Literature delivered in 1906. There he talks about his view of literature as one constituting a world of its own, where each single work contributes to the perfection of the whole. He feels that man realised himself, fulfilled himself in knowing others, in bringing them closer or working for them. It was this truth or essence of man that tried to express itself through literature and hence one could conceive of literature in terms of a whole where each literary work played its part in realising the perfection of the whole. Rabindranath does speak of one literature, of essences and truths, but what lends a different dimension to his theory of essences and truths is the fact that they are contingent on human relations. The thought process is open-ended – the creation of the literary tower forever remains incomplete with just the ideal of the end stamped on its innermost core. Within this framework the translational norm will also be open-ended enough to include free adaptations of poems that can belong anywhere and to all.

Rabindranath's vision of visvasahitya finds resonance in many of the poet-translators of the period. The first collections of world poetry in Bangla were Tirthasalil (1908), Tirtharenu (1910) and Manimanjusha (1915) and their author Satyendranath Dutta. There were five hundred and three texts from different periods and countries. Translations were made from Chinese, Persian, English, French, and from several Indian languages. In one of the earlier poems Satyendranath seems a little unsure of the end-product, “I do not know what I did in the context of what I had set out to do” (1984:123). The pre-translational phase, one governed by the ideology of faithfulness and by visions of precise contours, soon gives way to other exigencies, more immediate perhaps, more necessary to the literary system. The leading poets of the period encourage Satyendranath in his efforts to translate – Rabindranath tells him after reading Tirtharenu that his translations are not silpakarya (artifacts), but sristikarya (creative acts). Earlier after reading Tirthasalil, he had written that the translated poems had taken shelter in the branches of the original to blossom in all their beauty and rasa. The translation of a poem was in fact, he writes, both a translation and a new poem. In other words, the translated poem also had to be accepted as a poem in the target literature to legitimise its entity as a translated poem. In Satyendranath's translations there is a strong presence of the source language poem in the general ambience and the form which are again layered with cultural and local connotations. There are also the demands of the creative act – once a choice has been made with reference to one particular texteme, others necessarily have to follow. As a poet, Satyendranath occupies an important place for his experiments with sound patterns, and often as translator, he finds an incentive in source language poems to explore such patterns. The Japanese tanka and the Malaysian pantoum, the verse patterns of Paul Verlaine and Victor Hugo and certain metrical patterns of Sanskrit poetry are introduced in Bangla through his translations. As for the act of translation, he says he engages with it to bring about a relationship of ananda or joy (anander atmiyata korite sadhan).

Satyendranath Datta belongs to the pre-modern period in Bangla literature, if we go by standard periodisation in histories of literatures. Translation activities continue on a large scale during the several decades of transition from the pre-modern to the modern. Poets, especially from the mid-twenties, try to come out from the dominant presence of Rabindranath, to find new means of expression as they grapple with the times, the aftermath of the First World War, the economic depression and the resultant instability. Translation activities at this point of time get linked with the uncertainties of social life and receive a new stimulus. Anthologies of translated poems by single authors are published a little later in the fifties, but journals such as Parichay, concentrating to a large extent on foreign literature, emerge. The poetry of the period becomes marked by an intertextual quality that becomes both the sign and symptom of modernity. As Alokeranjan Dasgupta and Sankha Ghosh write in the preface to their volume of translated poems Sapto Sindhu Das Diganto, translation during the period is an integrated activity, for the source language poem is not felt to be a very distant entity, whereas in earlier periods source language poems were translated for the sake of beauty and variety or, in other words, not because they complemented one's sense of being in the world. In fact, to many poets writing at the time, translation becomes a necessary act. If we do not have as many adaptations (chhaya abalambane) as in the last few decades, we have Bangla poetry, or at least one prominent stream of Bangla poetry being compulsively drawn into a larger arena of world poetry. The notion of difference, strongly present but unstated in the concept of visvasahitya, is glossed over at least on the surface level. Translation then supposedly has an active place in modelling the target system. Sudhindranath Dutta writes an essay called 'Kavyer Mukti' or the 'Emancipation of Poetry' where he emphasises the need for an open-ended process of reception. The very act of translation gets linked with the writing of poetry. On the pragmatic level this can imply greater degrees of equivalence between content or semantic categories as well as metalinguistic or cultural and semiotic aspects. Given the differences in the two systems this happens within certain limits and to the extent that it does it also brings in a gap between the popular and the cultivated circuit of readers of poetry. In the next section, I will take up texts on translation by three important poet-translators of the period.

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