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As no earlier puranic texts are available in the Jaina tradition, some of the scholars have said that Mahapurana of Jinasena and Gunabhadra is the first Jaina puranic text. But internal evidence in this text refers to a text by Kavi Parameshti as a source text. Even though some of the Kannada epics also refer to Kavi Parameshti, whether they do so because Jinasena’s text claims so or these later poets had seen Kavi Parameshti’s text is not known. It is the usual tradition that while writing the epics these poets employ a technique of saying that though there is an individual talent in their composition, the original story had a divine origin, and is retold by several revered Acharyas to claim a certain kind of sanctity for what they are composing. It is through this ploy/technique that they would combine both individual talent and collective or shared tradition.

The canonical classical Kannada literature is full of epics composed based on Mahapurana; it has triggered the imagination of several later poets/scholars.⁸ Mahapurana narrates the purana related to 24 Thirthankaras, 12 Chakravartis, 9 Balabhadras, 9 Narayanas and 9 Pratinarayanas. Later epics have expanded a particular story of a Thirthankara or summarized the Mahapurana entirely, but focussed on one or two Thirthankaras/Chakravartis or others. Each later epic not only consults Mahapurana, if we go by the claims of the poet in the opening stanzas of the epic, but also other epics that have come in Kannada, Prakrit and Sanskrit. Only a thorough textual analysis would reveal whether they simply named the earlier texts/poets or they have taken them as source texts.

For example, the story of Yashodhara is retold by many. According to A.N Upadhye, who has written an introduction to Vadiraja’s Yashodharacharitra (a Sanskrit epic of early 11^th century) with a Sanskrit commentary by Lakshmana, and edited with an English translation in prose by K. Krishnamoorthy. There are important epics on the same theme before the Yashodharacharitra of Vadiraja. They are Prabhanjana’s work (which is not available and hence the title is unknown), Somadeva’s Yasastilaka (959 A.D.) and Pushpadanta’s Jasaharachariu (around 965 A.D.), the latter two being the most significant. (See Vadiraja 1963). Kannada Yashodhara Charitre by Janna was composed in 1209 A.D.⁹ Except Prabhanjana, about whom I don’t know much, all other writers lived in Karnataka. Pushpadanta, who I have discussed earlier, lived in Karnataka although he was an Apabhhmsha writer.. Similarly Vadiraja’s activities were patronized by Chalukya kings and he lived both in what are today called Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.  Janna was a Kannada poet. Only a comparative study of these various texts would help us to know which the original source is. And whatever be the original source, all the texts were composed here, in this land, so it was not an alien land or culture that poets like Janna were translating.

Most of the poets of that period were well-versed in many languages. They could compose poetry in a language learnt later in their lives.¹⁰ For example Chavundaraya, a tenth century writer, has written both in Kannada and Sanskrit. His Trishashti Lakshna Mahapurana is also known as Chavundarayapurana, it is an abridged prose version of Mahapurana mentioned earlier. Chavundaraya has also written another Sanskrit text called Chaaritrasara,¹¹ which is basically a conduct book for jaina saints, based on the earlier shaastra literature found in both Prakrit and Sanskrit. He was the one who built the Gommateshwara statue in Shravanabelagola, and was a minister in Ganga dynasty (for details about Chavundaraya, see introduction to Kamala Hampana and KR Sheshagiri (eds) 1983). Chavundaraya’s Kannada text has been helpful in fixing the dates, and the authorship of many Sanskrit texts (See Shastri 1977:39-41).

Chavundaraya’s case is not an isolated instance. There were many who have written in more than one language during those days. Many of the poets of this medieval period have claimed that they were ubhaya bhasha kavis (‘bilingual poets’) or others have called them so.

A further point about Sanskrit textual production in Karnataka is that, many of the Tikas or Vyakhyanas available today on Jaina canonical literature in Sanskrit were composed during this period in Karnataka or, to be precise, in what historians call ‘Deccan’.

Even a cursory look at the patronage given to literature by various dynasties that ruled Karnataka or Deccan would tell us that they provided patronage to writers of all languages, though there might have been differences in proportions either due to their own religious/language inclination or due to larger general factors which might have been beyond their control. Kadambas were the first ones to patronise Jainas. Gangas, who ruled from Talakadu, were the first to openly encourage Jaina literature (middle of the first millennium). Many of the kings during this period were also writers. Durvinita, who gets mentioned in Srivijaya’s Kavi Raja Maarga might be the Ganga king Durvinita who ruled around 500 A.D. Another king of this dynasty Shivakumara (780-814) has written Gajastaka. Ereyappa (886-913) of this dynasty had patronised Gunavarma, who has written Shudraka and Harivamsha. Chavundaraya, who has already been broached earlier, was a minister with Rachamalla, the Ganga king. It is said that this dynasty was established with the help of a Jaina guru (Nagarajaiah 1999).

Similarly Rashtrakutas extended patronage to literatures in all languages.Writng about the condition of education and literature during the Rashtrakutas whose kingdom included even Gujarat, Altekar says that during this period Canarese literature (=Kannada literature) had begun to flourish in Karnataka (Altekar 1967:406). He also says that it was during this period that kavya or classical style of writing established its grip in the Deccan. Kavi Raja Maarga composed by the Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha, is the first work of poetics in Kannada and is also the first available text in Kannada, although it is an adaptation of Dandi’s Kaavyadarsha. During the reign of Krishna II many Sanskrit texts were composed. Altekar says that although “Hindu Sanskrit writers, having any composition of permanent value to their credit, are indeed few” in this period, the contribution of Jainism to Sanskrit literature is considerable (Altekar 1967: 408-409).

Rastrakutas who ruled from Malkhed extended their patronage to Sanskrit literature, Kannada literature and Prakrit literature. According to Nagarajaiah who has looked at this issue, “the literature of this age, in whichever language it may be, not only mirrors the religious liberalism, but also reflects the military strength, immense wealth, religious catholicity, cultural opulence, literary affluence, and love of art and architecture” (Nagarajaiah 2000:61). Ravikirthi (early 7^th century), Kaviparamesthi (750 A.D.), Jinasena I and Jinasena II, Gunabhadra (already mentioned); Srinidhi (the author of Mahapurana), supposed to be the preceptor of Ugraditya (770-840 A.D.) who has written a treatise on the science of medicine called Kalyanakaraka; Kuchibhattaraka - all of these people contributed to writing Mahapurana. Bhatta-Kalankadeva (720-80 A.D.) is seen as someone who defeated Buddhists in the discussion on logic at the court of Pallava king Himasitala and drove them to Ceylon. He was a dialectician of unequalled eminence. He has authored basic texts on varied subjects including Jaina epistemology, logic and metaphysics like Tattvartha-Rajavarthika, Astasati, Siddhiviniscaya Pramana-samgraha; Swami Virasena has authored three important works on Jaina philosophy touching upon the science of computation, cosmography and ksetra ganita; Dhananjaya (late 8^th century) is known for his lexicon and an epic Dvisandhana Mahakavya; Vadiraja (already mentioned); Vidyananda (900-950 A.D.) composer of Tattvartha-sloka-varttika, Astrasahasri, Yuktyanusasanalankara etc.; Palyakriti Sakatayana (840 A.D.), a court poet of Amoghavarsha composed the grammar Sabdanusasana, he also wrote a commentary for his own work; Mahaviracharya (850 A.D.) was a protégé of Amoghavarsa-I and composed Ganitasara-samgraha (a mathematical book); Indranandi (930 A.D.), author of Samayabhusana, Srutavatara, Nitisara, Srutapanchami and Jvalamalini-kalpa was a resident of Manyakheta. He seems to have written an auto-commentary for his Jvalamalini-kalpa in Kannada. Somadevasuri is known for his Yasastilaka, a work commissioned by Baddega II (955-965 A.D.), a subsidiary of Rashtrakutas. Somadeva also flourished as a court poet of Calukyas of Vemulavada.

During the Chalukya period also we find many Sanskrit writers, Prakrit writers and Kannada writers. Chalukyas supported Vaidic literature, that too Shastra literature of a secular nature. On various subjects we find Shastra literature such as Jataka Tilaka, Grammar, Lexicons, Govaidya (Veterinary science), and Mathematics. As we have just seen, even the Rashtrakutas promoted shastra literature. The Chalukyas were ruling from Kalyana and they were known as Kalyana Chalukyas. Someshwara III (1127-1139) has authored Manasollasa. This text is seen as an encyclopedic work, a guide book to ruling, and the knowledge contained in it is a must for a king.¹² Even during the Keladi dynasty period as late as 1709 A.D., Basavaraja, the king composed an encyclopedic work, which is also one of the rare texts that gives a lot of historical facts (though not coherently narrated, but scattered), called Sivatattvaratnakara. The history of the dynasty is interwoven with different branches of knowledge (Chitnis 1974: 5-6 and 213-221). Another important text that was composed during the Kalyana Chalukya period in Sankrit is Mitakshara of Vijnanesvara, which deals with the constitution of court of justice, the grades of courts, the branch of judicial procedure, the origin of ownership, the transfer of ownership, the topic of possession as the basis of the title, the subject of partition and inheritance etc. This text has several commentaries: Apararka, a Silahara king ruling in the 12^th century, has written a commentary called Yajnavalkyadharmasastranibandha.

After Rashtrakutas and Chalukyas, Seunas of Devagiri (also known as Yadavas) ruled the Deccan and South India. They also supported all languages and literatures. I will not elaborate on it. Hoysalas supported Jainism. Later on with the conversion of Bittideva into Vaishnavism, they also supported it. At the time of Seunas of Devagiri, Veerashaivism had made its presence in this region, so they also generously supported this new religion/sect.¹³ Prakrit literature continued even during the time of Hoysalas - commentaries both on earlier canonical Jaina literature and puranic epics. Textual production in Sanskrit continues to dominate Prakrit hereafter, though the production of Jaina literature didn’t stop in Kannada and Sanskrit.

The intent of this long story of textual production in Prakrit, Sanskrit, and Kannada in this period is to show that Prakrit and Sanskrit were not translated from a distant culture to Kannada. Texts were produced simultaneously in all the languages. Translations into Kannada and Sanskrit from Prakrit Jaina literature begin almost simultaneously. The foundation for Apabhrahmsha (Hindi), Marathi Prakrit (Marathi) and other north western languages might have been laid during the Rashtrakuta empire which extended from the south to Gujarat. Even the production of Jaina literature might have taken place in Shravanabelagola. Acharyas like Kundakunda, who wrote in Prakrit, were in charge of Jaina religion in the Tamil country. So it was a multilingual metropolis (both religious as well as political city-towns) that we are talking about. If a Jaina writes a text in Sanskrit and also writes a commentary for it in Kannada, I don’t think it can be seen as negotiating the hegemony of Sanskrit. Translations and textual production gradually shifting from Prakrit to Sanskrit and other Indian languages is one way of coming to terms with the ascendancy of Sanskrit in secular matters pertaining to state.

As far as the question of translations making a ‘god-spoken’ tongue accessible to the vast majority of the populace is concerned, the Jainas targeted only the first three varnas. They certainly didn’t touch the Sudras and those who were outside the varna fold.

We now move to textual practices and translations during the Veerashaiva period and Dasa literature (Vaishnava) period.

What is called ‘Bhakti movement’ is an amalgamation of different movements/ formations and expansions of sects/religions/cross-religious churnings that happened in various places across India and also across a time span ranging from the 9^th century to the 18^th century. In the Kannada context, the emergence of Veerashaiva sect/religion is seen as part of the Bhakti movement, and literature (both oral and written) associated with it is also named by some as Bhakti literature. When Jainas were engaged in textual production/translations in Kannada they were targeting (if at all that was the motive) only the first three varnas of the varna hierarchy. It was the Veerashaiva movement that tried to embrace as many people as possible across caste/varna/occupations. During this period, a certain kind of decentralization of worship of a particular god, Shiva, happens. It is during this period that in the form of vachanas¹⁴, a literature that was not directly linked with an institutionalized sponsorship either of a monastery or of a royal court began emerging. But that was only in the 12^th century for a brief period. Later on this cult got institutionalized and produced puranic texts of the cult as well as Shastra literature, although in some of the vachanas there are anti-Sanskrit statements.

But again if we look at the cases of “Bhakti literature”, unlike in other cases, there were no translations linked with the Veerashaiva movement in the initial stages though some of the early Vachanakaras like Allamaprabhu and others were well versed in Sanskrit and were aware of the major debates in philosophy.¹⁵ After a century of the beginning of the movement in the 12^th century in Kalyana, institutionalization of this religion/sect begins. Harihara writes a new form in Kannada called ragale¹⁶ in which he writes the history of Old Shaiva devotees. The source of this composition is recognized as the 11^th century-end or early 12^th century text Periyapurana of Shekkilar. This is the only recognizable translation. That too happens in the 13^th century after a gap of nearly 50-100 years of what is called ‘Vachana movement’. Later Veerashaiva poets also produce epics on the heroes of the 12^th century such as Basavapurana of Bhima kavi written in Telugu, later translated into Kannada and also Sanskrit; Padmananka on Kereya Padmarasa, Chamarasa on Prabhudeva (Allama Prabhu), Virakta Tontadarya on Tontada Siddalinga and Palkurike Somanatha; Chennabasavanka on Akka Mahadevi; Bommarasa on Revanasidda; Virupaksha Pandita on Chennabasavanna; Adrisha Kavi on Prauda Devaraya; Parvatesha on Revanasiddha, Marulasiddha, Ekorama etc. Epics get created not only in Kannada but also in Sanskrit, Telugu, Tamil and Marathi; and most of these were translations from one to another. Epics were not created in Sanskrit, but only translated into Sanskrit from Telugu and Kannada.

Later the vachanas were put into textual form, and they were arranged according to Shatsthalas, and a lot of Shastra literature was constructed around it. Some of it was in Sanskrit. Siddantha Shikamani is an important text that was composed in Sanskrit by Shivayogi. Sripati Pandita writes Srikara Bhasya, Svaprabhananda writes Shivadvaitha manjari, Mayideva writes Anubhava Sutra, Palkurike Somantha translates Basavapurana as Basavarajiya etc. Later on commentaries get produced on these shastra texts as well as vachanas in Sanskrit and Kannada. Some of them get translated into Telugu, Tamil and Marathi languages much later on.

So what scholars identify as ‘Bhakti movement’ in Kannada didn’t come up as a result of translations but gave rise to translations from Kannada and Telugu into Sanskrit. Many of these writers were also bilingual writers. With the ascendancy of the Marathi language in Northern Deccan, some of these texts get translated into Marathi or the copies of the Kannada texts are available in Marathi script.

 

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