The other side of the coin is the 'positive analytic' which is what is required to render the foreign in the TT. This is some kind of literal translation. Berman focuses on the translation of creative fiction. "The principal problem of translating the novel", says Berman "is to respect its polylogic and avoid an arbitrary homogenization." Berman is here referring to the way translation needs to reduce the variation and linguistic creativity of the novel.

Translation Studies as an Inter-discipline

We know that although translation as an activity is as old as any cultural activity that man has known, Translation as an academic discipline is of recent origin. We know that James Holmes made the founding statement in his paper titled "The Name and Nature of Translation Studies" which he presented in 1972 in the Third International Congress of Applied Linguistics in Copenhagen. Gideon Toury's presentation of Holmes' map of Translation Studies is reproduced below:

Jeremy Munday develops the 'applied' part of translation studies in view of IT explosion as follows:

MODES IN TRANSLATION

The three modes in translation are:

MACHINE TRANSLATION

The extremely large volume of technical, industrial, scientific and commercial translation that is needed far exceeds the limits of what human translators can deliver within the relevant deadlines. Also, there is the rise of computer technology to bring about the development of translation systems. Some ambitious systems aim for Machine Translation proper. Others offer machine-aided translation (depending on the emphasis, either human-assisted MT or machine-assisted human translation).

Quite early in the MT enterprise, it became clear that no mechanical system would be able to deliver the optimal type of output, FAHQ (Fully Automatic, High Quality) translations. The central problem is that natural language is full of ambiguities, which mechanical systems cannot resolve without human intervention. Mainly because language is a cultural phenomenon, and the system would look for only linguistic equivalents and it cannot translate the significant cultural aspects because one cannot precisely specify a predefined set of cultural situations and phrases or sentences to match them.

Machine Aided Translation

There are three different computerized approaches to the translation process:

• Machine aids for translators

• Machine aided translation

• Machine translation

Machine aids include word processors, dictionaries, management tools, term banks and various look up facilities. They support the translator but do not perform the actual translation task.

Machine aided translation systems are the ones that actually perform the task of translation, but rely on intervention of the human translator at various steps in the translation process. Machine aided translation is semi automatic.

Machine translation is fully automatic and is of two types:

Example-based MT produces translation by comparing the input with a corpus of typical translated examples, as a model for TT. 'Matching' and 'Re-combining' are the two stages in this method.

Statistics-based MT is based on a parallel corpus. This system attempts to translate from English to French purely on the basis of probabilities, calculated by considering millions of words of parallel texts. The statistical probabilities determine the choice of lexical equivalents.

It has become increasingly clear that translation studies could draw on a number of disciplines: Linguistics, Literary Theory and Literary History, Culture and Cultural history, Anthropology, Psychology, Semiotics and so on, so that there could be a different kind of ramification than the one seen in the diagram given under Translation Studies as a Discipline. However the construction of an interdisciplinary methodology is by no means easy and straightforward. It may be said in conclusion that with so many e-translators for so many language pairs being available and Translation Studies only standing to gain by an interdisciplinary approach, there are exciting days ahead for the field.